What was a primary consequence of the Peace of Westphalia?

The Peace of Westphalia, which concluded in 1648, is significant for its establishment of the principle of state sovereignty, fundamentally altering the political landscape of Europe. This peace treaty ended the Thirty Years' War and a series of other conflicts, marking the transition from the dominance of religious authority in political matters to a system where sovereign states gained the power to govern themselves without external interference, particularly from the Church.

This shift meant that individual states were recognized as having the right to determine their own religious practices, thus diminishing the absolute power that religious authorities had held prior to the Treaty. The emphasis on state sovereignty fostered the development of a modern international order where territorial integrity and political autonomy became paramount.

The other options do not accurately capture the essence of the changes brought about by the Peace of Westphalia. It did not lead to religious uniformity in Europe, which continued to experience diverse and often conflicting religious beliefs. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe and the consolidation of power in the Spanish Empire were also unrelated to the consequences of the treaty; these events were influenced by different dynamics in European power politics and conflicts.