As a result of the changes described in the passage, which of the following effects had the greatest impact on the rural population of Europe?

The option that highlights subsistence farmers facing famine and malnutrition speaks to a critical issue in rural Europe during periods of agricultural change, particularly during times of climatic fluctuations or economic instability. When good harvests are not consistent or when adverse weather conditions occur, farmers who rely solely on their own production for sustenance can quickly find themselves in precarious situations.

This situation can lead to food shortages and a decline in nutrition levels, profoundly affecting the rural population's health and stability. These challenges often resulted in social and economic upheaval as families struggled to meet their basic needs. The impact of famine and malnutrition in this context was profound, leading to broader ramifications for rural communities, such as increased mortality rates and migration in search of better living conditions.

On the other hand, while good harvests and the open-field system can enhance agricultural output and family structures, they don't capture the immediate and devastating consequences of inadequate harvests on subsistence farmers' well-being. Additionally, independence from feudal ties suggests a positive transformation that may not have been felt uniformly across the rural population, particularly for those who remained vulnerable to the volatility of agricultural production.